The Formation of Florida as a New State Research Paper

The Formation of Florida as a New State - Research Paper Example Unification of Florida and the USA is a significant event in American history. It is reflected in the fact that formation of Florida as a new state proved its beneficial effect for safety and development of American lands, as well as harmonious life of their residents. Being the territory actively inhabited by the Seminole tribe of Indians, which caused serious troubles to the US Army, Florida received necessary assistance of American Government regarding the issue of the Seminoles’ outrage. In particular, such acute factors as safety matter and an issue of slavery appear to be the main aspects of Florida’s formation as a new state of America. Safety Matter as a Reason for Florida’s Becoming the US State The first condition, which caused unification of Florida and America, is a consequence of active migration of the Seminoles from north to Florida after weakening of Spanish positions on the peninsula. Actually, it was the beginning of long-lasting opposition between the Seminoles and American Army, as a result of Indians’ aggression towards Americans, resulted in three Seminole wars. Actually, Indians motivated their actions as a desire to protect their territory. Despite this fact, American government was aware of another one, that is, the Seminoles constantly made devastating raids on neighboring Georgia (Florida Becomes a Territory). All in all, the outrage of the Seminoles became a threat to peace of Americans and their harmonious development.

Dbq Regarding the Literary Responses to World War 1 from 1914 to 1928 Essay Example for Free

Dbq Regarding the Literary Responses to World War 1 from 1914 to 1928 Essay Historical Context: World War 1 (1914-1918) was a war that was inevitable, but almost entirely underestimated. As the war dragged on for four years and millions of lives were expended in the name of victory, many were greatly impacted culturally, mainly Europeans and Americans. In what was known as the lost generation, many poets and writers developed new forms of literature in response to the devastating consequences of the war. DBQ Prompt: Identify and analyze the various European and American literary responses to World War 1 created during the war and in the decade after the end of World War 1. Document #1 - Source: Paul Valà ©ry, French poet and critic, â€Å"The Crisis of the Mind,† evaluation of European mind and civilization (1920). - - The storm has died away, and still we are restless, uneasy, as if the storm were about to break. Almost all the affairs of men remain in a terrible uncertainty. We think of what has disappeared, and we are almost destroyed by what has been destroyed; we do not know what will be born, and we fear the future, not without reason†¦ Doubt and disorder are in us and with us. There is no thinking man, however shrewd or learned he may be, who can hope to dominate this anxiety, to escape from, this impression of darkness. - Document #2 - Source: Roland Leighton, British soldier serving in France, letter to fiancà © Vera Brittain (1915). - - Among this chaos of twisted iron and splintered timber and shapeless earth are the fleshless, blackened bones of simple men who poured out their red, sweet wine of youth unknowing, for nothing more tangible than Honour or their Countrys Glory or anothers Lust of Power. Let him who thinks that war is a glorious golden thing, who loves to roll forth stirring words of exhortation, invoking Honour and Praise and Valour and Love of Country. Let him look at a little pile of sodden grey rags that cover half a skull and a shine bone and what might have been its ribs, or at this skeleton lying on its side, resting half-crouching as it fell, supported on one arm, perfect but that it is headless, and with the tattered clothing still draped around it; and let him realise how grand and glorious a thing it is to have distilled all Youth and Joy and Life into a foetid heap of hideous putrescence. - Document #3 - Source: Ernest Hemingway, American author and expatriate, â€Å"The Sun Also Rises,† expatriate character adventure (1926). - - Youre an expatriate. Youve lost touch with the soil. You get precious. Fake European standards have ruined you. You drink yourself to death. You become obsessed with sex. You spend all your time talking, not working. You are an expatriate, see? You hang around cafes. - Document #4 - Source: F. Scott Fitzergerald, American writer, â€Å"This Side of Paradise,† examines post-war morality with fictional love plot (1920). - I simply state that Im a product of a versatile mind in a restless generation-with every reason to throw my mind and pen in with the radicals. Even if, deep in my heart, I thought we were all blind atoms in a world as limited as a stroke of a pendulum, I and my sort would struggle against tradition; try, at least, to displace old cants with new ones. Ive thought I was right about life at various times, but faith is difficult. One thing I know. If living isnt seeking for the grail it may be a damned amusing game. - Document #5 - Source: Eleanor Chaffer, French woman, poem â€Å"Lost Generation† published in a newspaper (1921). - - Look not for the flower of innocence in these eyes, - Gravely and silently they have looked on death, - Seen terror rain down from unfriendly skies, - Learned while yet infants how frail is mans breath. - They have turned from a landscape where the ground - Is poisoned and destroyed: give them a toy - And it is held in their hands with no sound - Of childish mirth. This solemn-faced small boy - Is older than his father: in his face, - Wisdom is the ghost that will not leave; - The world to him is a wild and dangerous place; - No covert here where he may hide and grieve. - Look well on these, and on the world we made - As heritage for them — and be afraid! Document #6 - Source: Wilfred Owen, English poet and soldier, Dulce et Decorum Est, addressed to his mother, written 1917, published later (1920) - - If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues, My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory That old lie: Dulce et decorum est Pro patria mori - Document #7 - Source: D.H. Lawrence, English novelist and poet, Lady Chatterley’s Lover, fictional protagonist has a love affair, examines structural morale (1928). - - Ours is essentially a tragic age, so we refuse to take it tragically. The cataclysm has happened, we are among the ruins, we start to build up new little habitats, to have new little hopes. It is rather hard work: there is now no smooth road into the future: but we go round, or scramble over the obstacles. We’ve got to live, no matter how many skies have fallen. - Document #8 - Source: Kathe Kollwitz, German expressionist artist, The Survivors (1922), by Kathe Kollwitz - .

Validity Of The Concept Of Codependency Sociology Essay

Validity Of The Concept Of Codependency Sociology Essay Early discourse regarding chemical dependency gave rise to the enigmatic concept of codependency. Codependency quickly became diagnosed in the form of a personality disorder, a disease and a family addiction. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence supporting the concept of codependency as an official diagnosis. Feminist criticism has further contributed to the reduction in popularity of the disease model. The following literature review will provide an overview of the concept of codependency. It will outline various definitions of codependency found within the literature. These will then be compared with feminist alternatives to the concept of codependency such as connectedness and overresponsibility. Traditional codependency treatment is heavily influenced by proponents of the concept that alcoholism is a disease and this literature review aims to investigate those treatments. Central to the codependency debate is the lack of empirical evidence to support any one definition for the condition. This allows sceptics to question the validity of the concept of codependency. This review of codependency literature thoroughly explores the studies conducted in combination with any scholarly critiques of those studies. As the majority of studies were conducted during the 1990s, the inclusion criteria for this review are not constrained to contemporary literature. There is a remarkable lack of research into the link between same-sex relationships and codependency. For the purposes of this literature review, and in keeping with the studies conducted on heterosexual married relationships, the codependent will be referred to as she and the addicted partner will be referred to as he. Definitions of Codependency The codependency model construes characteristics associated most commonly with women, e.g. caring, nurturing, sustaining relationships, in an entirely pathological way and urges women to self-define on this basis. The search for an agreed definition of codependency is the subject of much disagreement, despite many definitions being proposed within the literature. According to a study by Dear, no one definition has been empirically derived (2002: 47). The definition of codependency depends on what situation is being described and on the motivation of the person using the term. In treatment terms, codependency is considered one of the most frequently diagnosed concepts despite inadequate research into the model. In 1991, a review of codependency literature for a core meaning of codependency found six different definitions (in Harkness and Cotrell, 1997: 473-474). An emotional, psychological, and behavioural condition; An obsession with interpersonal control; Learned self-defeating behaviours; Suffering connected with attending to others; An addictive disease; A preoccupation with others characterised by extreme dependency. According to Lyon and Greenberg, 96% of the general population in the United States has met the loose conditions for codependency at one time or another (1991: 436). It could be argued that everyone who is around an addicted person is considered a codependent. Below are a few definitions and symptoms derived from codependency literature. Codependency as a Relational and Behavioural Concept: This is an example of dependence on addictive behaviours and a need for approval from others to find safety, self-worth, and identity (Anderson, 1994: 678). The term represents any individual involved in a dysfunctional or abusive relationship (Lyon and Greenberg, 1991: 436). This definition applies when a person displays an excessive dependence on other people for approval and identity. Dear outlined other relational or behavioural codependent traits (2002: 47). These included the impulse to accommodate the needs of others ahead of ones individual needs; participation in self-destructive interpersonal behaviours such as care-taking (taking responsibility for controlling another persons conduct); and rescuing (taking responsibility for the consequences of another persons irresponsible actions). Codependency as a Diagnostic Entity: This perspective diagnoses codependency as a primary disease which manifests itself in every member of an addictive family. Codependency has been defined by scholars as pathological behaviour, and it is considered to be worse than the addicted persons disease of addiction (George et al: 1999: 39; Schaef, 1986). Within this perspective, codependency is a curable diagnostic entity comprised of a predictable beginning, course, and outcome. Proponents of the diagnostic entity concept claim that a learned predisposition to enter into addictive relationships develops in childhood. Cermak in Anderson (1994: 677) contends that codependency is eligible for addition as a personality disorder to the Axis II Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R). He further states that a dependent personality disorder illustrates many features of codependency. Codependency from a Family Systems Perspective: This is a pattern of coping which advances because of prolonged exposure to a dysfunctional family. Dysfunctional family rules cause difficulties in expressing thoughts and feelings openly (Lyon and Greenberg, 1991: 436). This perspective contends that enhanced family functioning needs the resolution of the addicts problem as well as treatment for the family members codependency (Dear, 2002: 47). The family systems approach reflects a pattern of chronic and pathological behaviour allegedly caused by having a parent or partner who suffers from addiction (George et al, 1999: 39). The term codependent originated in the Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) program. It was then extended to groups such as Al-Anon, CoDA and Al-Ateen. The word codependent interchanged with the terms co-alcoholic and co-addict to label a family member or anyone who is negatively entangled with an addicted person (Lyon and Greenberg, 1991: 435). The Adult Children of Alcoholics movement adopted the concept of codependency in the 1980s. They extended the application of codependency to anyone who grew up in an alcoholic or dysfunctional family. Codependency from a Psychodynamic Perspective: From a psychodynamic perspective, codependency is construed to be a maladaptive way of relating to others. It is characterised by an intense certainty in individual powerlessness and the dominance of others, and a shortage of open expression of feelings. Other indications are extreme efforts to obtain a sense of purpose, identity and appreciation of self. Cullen and Carr expand this further by including a desire for fulfilment through engaging in personally destructive care-taking relationships (1999: 506) which involve high levels of denial, inflexibility, and numerous attempts to control the relationship (Zelvin, 1999: 14). Codependency from a Feminist Perspective: When the codependency concept first emerged, it described psychological, emotional, and behavioural problems displayed by the partners, and consequently the children, of alcoholics who unintentionally enabled continuance of the drinking problem rather than facilitating recovery. It replaced the less comprehensive terms co-alcoholic and enabler (Cullen and Carr: 1999: 505). On a socio-political level, feminist scholars regard codependency as yet another instrument in the oppression of women which fosters a denial of male responsibility (Anderson, 1994: 679). This position asserts that when men are noticeably impaired, their female partners must also be labelled sick or pathological to retain the balance of power in the relationship. Lyon and Greenberg highlight some of the symptoms located in codependency literature (1991: 436) which include: extreme and unbalanced interpersonal relationships; inability to endure being alone, combined with frantic efforts to avoid this; constant and chronic feelings of boredom and worthlessness; treating ones individual needs as subordinate to the needs of another; overpowering desire for approval and affection; external referencing; dishonesty and denial; low self-worth. Irrespective of whether one truly possesses the qualities of alleged codependency, self-labelling promotes that one take on the characteristics of the label. It encourages examination of ones own behaviour and experiences as suggestive of these traits, and to engage in conduct which is consistent with the label. George et al. proposed that legitimate psychological trauma or pathology may progress because of social stigmatisation and the negative stereotypes connected with the label of codependency (1999: 40-46). The codependency label tends to oversimplify multifaceted scenarios; it prevents change and growth; and it denies the uniqueness of a person. As individuals identify themselves with a label, they can assume that treatment centres know everything about their family, know about everything that is wrong with them, and know how to bring effective treatment. The codependent label is demoralising for the individual because it implants a fixed and negative understanding of the self and treatment. Krestan and Bepko claim that codependency should be renamed overresponsibility and recognised as a positive impulse gone awry (quoted in Anderson, 1994: 682). Overresponsibility for others combined with underresponsibility for the self characterises codependent behaviour. Zelvin contends that codependency must be reassessed as a sequence of problematic efforts to connect instead of a failure to separate (1999: 9). The feminist perspective thus offers alternatives to the traditional concept of codependency, and this literature review will discuss overresponsibility and connectedness with reference to the definitions of codependency outlined above. Extension of the Disease Concept of Alcoholism to Codependency The disease model concept has been intensely and cyclically debated for several hundred years. In the 1940s, the disease concept staged a comeback suggesting that alcohol itself was not responsible for any problematic drinking issues. The concept was rapidly adopted by the medical profession, popularised and then spread from America around the world. (Edwards, 2000: 96-98). Codependency was popularised in the same way with no scientific validation. Edwards summarised the effects of the alcoholic disease concept (2000: 101-102). If alcoholism is considered to be a disease, alcohol itself is not the problem. Instead, the unfortunate few were predisposed to contracting the disease. This concept initiated the two population theory which viewed alcoholism as an isolated disease which divided drinkers into two categories; alcoholics and social drinkers (Butler: 2002: 37). The disease concept legitimised medical and clinical treatment. Insurance companies would now pay claims if alcoholism was diagnosed as a disease. Once a funding system was put in place which ensured a constant flow of alcoholic patients, it can hardly be coincidence that hospitals became advocates of the disease concept. AA had become a common treatment method since its inception in the 1930s. This style of treatment then extended to codependency with groups such as Al-Anon being formed in the wake of the disease concept. The founder of AA, Bill Wilson, stated we did not wish to get in wrong with the medical profession by pronouncing alcoholism a disease entity. Therefore we always called it an illness or a malady (quoted in Kurtz, unpublished). The Oxford English Dictionary describes the term malady as a disease. Whether Wilsons comment aimed to intentionally mislead or not, it shows that AAs stance on the disease concept is as contentious as the disease concept itself. The disease concept ensured that alcoholics now became the good guys and could be welcomed back into society. Alcoholism was no longer considered a moral problem and alcoholics were no longer considered weak or deviant; it was not their fault an uncontrollable disease had engulfed them. In other words, the disease model excuses men from their alcoholism and their corresponding underresponsibility in a relationship. The disease concept of codependency reinforces this belief by claiming that women are sicker than men inflicted with the disease of alcoholism. Women are deemed pathological for reacting with the culturally conditioned feminine response of becoming the over-functioning person in a relationship with an under-functioning person. All of Jellineks data (the main proponent of the disease concept of alcoholism) was based on information obtained from a small group of AA members, of which he eliminated all questionnaires filled out by women because their responses differed immensely from the mens (Fingarette: 1988: 18-19). From a critical standpoint, Jellineks research was inadequate in proving the disease concept of alcoholism. In the 1970s, Edwards and Gross proposed the concept of an Alcohol Dependence Syndrome which resulted in a new worldwide Public Health Approach (1976: 1058). This has dismantled the disease concept of alcoholism. It is not a disease; rather, it is a development of severe dependence. Once the concept was dismantled, treatment for alcoholism changed from a predominantly clinical response to a social, community-based response. By disproving the disease concept of alcoholism, this casts doubt on the context in which the disease concept of codependency developed. Application of the Disease Concept to Obsessive Compulsive Disorder The codependency model is frequently used with families having one or more chemically dependent or otherwise addicted individuals (Cooper, 1995: 272). Cooper broadened the population and applied this model to families having one or more members with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) and emphasised how families become enablers through no fault of their own. Cooper observed the detrimental impact codependency has on their lives, calling relational codependency a dysfunctional behaviour (1995: 272). Cooper notes that OCD, like chemical addictions, is all encompassing. Family members become inextricably bound to the suffering individuals illness; this manifests in divorce, separation, chemical abuse, and academic problems for younger family members. Family members demonstrate codependency of those with OCD in a myriad of ways, most often succumbing to the affected individuals requests for rituals. The rituals are often lengthy and time-consuming and significantly disrupt family life (Cooper, 1995: 272). For the purposes of her study, Cooper acknowledged that codependency was multidimensional, pathological, stress-induced, and, most significantly, a disease. The family dynamics of codependency are the neglect of personal needs, being out of touch with ones own experience, and having a high tolerance for extremely inappropriate behaviour (Cooper, 1995: 272). Additional elements of Coopers disease model are feelings of helplessness, shame, depression, and anger. Disease Model Versus Feminist Perspective of Overresponsibility Asserting that codependency is a disease removes the likelihood that the codependent woman will pursue other, potentially more empowering methods of remedying her situation (Peled and Sacks, 2008: 390). According to Anderson, the casual diagnosis of codependency as a disease is harmful to those with other, valid disorders, as they are likely to place all or most of their issues under the umbrella of codependency (1994: 678). The disease model articulated by Schaef asserts that codependency has a predictable onset, course, and outcome (1986: 7), but she offers insignificant empirical evidence to support this contention. The evidence that supports the disease model focuses on wives or partners of chemically dependent men. The social mechanisms of medicalisation, however, are inordinately harmful, effectively controlling women by framing the forms of female resilience as illness (Peled and Sacks, 2008: 391). More importantly, the disease model of codependency ignores the so-called codependent person as an individual, failing to acknowledge his or her personal and subjective experiences. There is a complex web of experiences, interpersonal processes, and psychological dynamics that inform womens self-perceptions as being partners of addicted men. In their qualitative study of women living with alcoholic partners, Peled and Sacks discovered certain dominant themes from the results. These were the strength shown by the women; the acknowledgement that their husbands issues were deviant and problematic; and their reluctance to display a victim mentality, even when they are consistently abused by their husbands (2008: 391). This suggests that women who are widely perceived as codependent have much more pressing issues than their codependency. They do not admit being victims of domestic violence. A common theme in the womens experiences was a normative upbringing, courtship, and marriage that evolved into a relationship with a problematic partner. Though the study did outwardly confirm the tendency for codependent women to feel overly responsible for others whilst taking comparatively less responsibility for their own health and wellness, the feminist critique of the overresponsible and underresponsible paradigm is largely confirmed by this study (Peled and Sacks, 2008: 392). The women were clearly socialised to value the needs of others over their own needs, feeling excessive guilt when investing time or energy in self-care. Given these social norms, women who are in a relationship with an ill or needy partner will inevitably fall into a codependent diagnosis. The disease model of codependency frames ignorance of self-care as automatic and unrecognised yet the results of this study were glaringly inconsistent with that assertion. The participants universally demonstrated awareness of their neglect of personal needs. The researchers recommended that the codependent diagnosis be dismantled. Noting that the participants too often believed they were merely an instrument in their husbands addiction, a belief facilitated by codependency theories, Peled and Sacks called for greater emphasis on personal experience and empowerment when counselling women living with alcoholic partners (2008: 395). The goal of treatment, the authors assert, should be geared toward helping women find other paths toward self-fulfilment, beyond the provision of service to others. Sharpe and Taylor conducted a study of how identity variables such as self-esteem and peer relations relate to intimacy issues such as love and codependency in college women who are or have been victims of domestic violence (1999: 165). The researchers acknowledge how socially constructed ideas of romance (and the feminine role within that romance) promote selfless devotion to the partner that can be considered codependent. The conditions fostered by a disparity between ones self-identity and the achievement of intimacy are also labelled codependent. Aligning closely with the Peled and Sacks study, these results demonstrate that strength and personal identity are dominant themes in socially embedded female personalities that could easily receive a codependent diagnosis. This counters the disease model of codependency that highlights the affected person as being unable to define themselves in the absence of their partner. Relational Concept of Codependency and the Feminist Application of Connectedness Gender roles are significantly influential in the relational model of codependency, though they are only modestly recognised in the empirical literature supporting the relational theories. Aside from feminist criticism of the relational model, studies have asserted that the relational model largely ignores the human need for connections (Townsend and McWhirter, 2005: 191). In short, when individuals do not meet their needs for lasting, functional, social connections, there is a negative impact on the health and wellness of these people, with their entire worldviews being shaped by an absence of interpersonal connection. The resulting separation results in a partial or total lack of social supports. This lack of social support produces numerous negative consequences for the disconnected individual. The relational model construes interpersonal connections as facilitators of codependency (Anderson, 1994: 677). Townsend and McWhirter conducted a thorough review of over five hundred studies dating after 1984 containing the word connections in an effort to discredit the notion that human beings aim ultimately to be independent, self-sufficient, and, by extension, socially disconnected (2005: 191). Thus, interdependence and communality are positive notions within human developmental literature but become less so during the young adult and later life stages. Townsend and McWhirter identified that crucial components of psychological health are the sense of well-being and safety that stems from interpersonal connections, motivation to operate within the boundaries of a relationship, an increased awareness of self-worth stemming from connections, and the desire for additional connections (2005: 192). From a cultural perspective, Western discourse places considerably more emphasis on individual autonomy, countering the notion that connectedness is integral to development after childhood. Townsend and McWhirter contend that by definition, codependency has been characterised as a risk factor for individuals and their network of relationships because it suggests that too much connection, or association, with others is psychologically damaging (2005: 192). The disease model and Cermaks attempt to include codependency in the DSM-III-R essentially links interpersonal connections to addictions (quoted in Anderson, 1994: 677). Codependency literature closely links connectedness with dysfunction. The loss of connectedness, however, is detrimental to psychological health, rendering relational constructs of codependency not only potentially invalid but also harmful. Significant research by Townsend and McWhirter (2005) indicates that those experiencing bereavement benefit from relational networks. Ironically, the codependent interpersonal connections facilitate healing. Connectedness is defined by a number of interlinked variables, including embeddedness, engagement, companionship, and attachment, all of which emerge to varying degrees in codependency literature. The most empirically valid definition of connectedness reflects active involvement with another person, group, or environment (Ibid: 195). This involvement, used positively, should promote comfort, well-being, and the reduction of anxiety. While codependency is rarely framed as positive, it remains that the active connection is the same in connectedness and codependency discourse. Gender Roles and the Feminist Application of Connectedness The manner in which the relational literature highlights codependent behaviours as addictions and disease is particularly problematic as these are the same behaviours that are assets in developing interpersonal connections (Townsend and McWhirter 2005: 193). Codependent behaviours are just that; they are behaviours more indicative of gender-related subordination roles in relationships than they are indicative of a disease. The ignorance of gender roles as a significant informant of codependent behaviours is one of the deepest flaws in the relational codependent literature, as most of the empirical evidence relates to male-female relationships, with the man being chemically dependent and the woman enabling his behaviour through codependent behaviours. The role played by power differentials in the relational literature is a significant one, with far too little credence afforded to the lack of power had by women in heterosexual relationships. Discussion of gender equality, patriarchy, and a long history of oppression are notably absent from the literature supporting codependency as relational and disease-related (Anderson, 1994: 681). The notion of the separate self is dominated by a Western male perspective, challenging the validity of connection-cultivating behaviours. There are fundamental differences in the way women and men engage in their interpersonal relationships. Townsend and McWhirter assert that the central principle in female socialisation is relational connections (2005: 195). This principle is comparatively minimal in influencing male socialisation. Conceivably, women tend to both be more connected to others and value that connection more so than men. Overresponsibility and Too Many Definitions of Codependency The overresponsibility and underresponsibility paradigm is significant with respect to connectedness as it frames flawed attempts at connection as the prime culprit in birthing codependency; this is in contrast to the literature that condemns over-connectedness as the foremost catalyst for codependency (Zelvin, 1999: 9). Using a sample of seventy-six male and female undergraduates, Cretser and Lombardo investigated the level of codependency between students having an alcoholic parent and those who did not (1999: 629). They hypothesised that children of alcoholics would have a notably higher level of codependency. This hypothesis was glaringly unconfirmed by the study. The participants who had alcoholic parents received lower codependency scores than those with non-alcoholic parents (Cretser and Lombardo 1999: 629). These findings are significant in that much of the codependency literature centres on the dysfunction of the relationships marked by the condition. Cretser and Lombardo acknowledged that codependency is thought to originate in dysfunctional families in which children overcompensate for parental inadequacies. They become overresponsible for others and underresponsible for themselves, and consequently develop an excessive sensitivity toward the needs of others (1999: 629). Their research findings parallel the previously reviewed literature that cites how a large percentage of the population meets the criteria for codependency (Cretser and Lombardo 1999: 629; Lyon and Greenberg, 1991: 436). In contrast to the feminist debate regarding codependency, the researchers found that there was no significant variation in codependency according to gender and age. While they use their findings to accuse college counsellors of recognising symptoms of codependency in all students, their findings could also warn of the over-diagnosis of codependency. Anderson, in her 1994 article entitled A Critical Analysis of the Concept of Codependency, contends that the sheer number of diagnoses of codependency precludes the integrity of the codependency diagnosis. The entire Irish nation could be accused of exhibiting codependent traits for being overresponsible in bailing out the underresponsible banks and thus eligible for codependency treatment. It is alarming that an entire nation should qualify for treatment on the basis of such contentious and over-inclusive symptoms. The Cretser and Lombardo study supports Andersons assertion that codependency is over-diagnosed to the point of invalidity, as even the children of alcoholics the population who comes only a close second to women in abusive relationships in terms of meeting codependency criteria do not demonstrate a significantly higher incidence of the condition. An alternative study focusing on the children of alcoholics highlighted how the codependency model, specifically the disease model, emphasises how children are developmentally impeded from achieving appropriate and normative social functioning due to their parents addiction (Sher, 1997: 247). Theoretically, the need to take care of parents during childhood fosters codependency later in life, manifesting most frequently as denial, depression, hyper vigilance, and other seemingly fragmented characteristics. Sher questions the validity of the concept of codependency and states that studies tend to have serious methodological limitations, examine only a narrow aspect of purported codependent characteristics, and fail to demonstrate whether the concept of codependency has additional explanatory value (1997: 247). Shers conclusions align closely with Andersons assertion that women who are deemed codependent are merely applying normative coping behaviours to their situation (1994: 680). Fischer and Wampler stress that children of alcoholics consistently emerge as strong individuals who are labelled resilient (1994: 469). This is merely a reflection of the limited knowledge regarding the range of forces influencing a childs socialisation and informing his or her experience. For instance, Ferrari and Olivette (1993: 963) studied the hypothesis of a link between authoritarian parenting styles and the onset of codependency during adulthood. They concluded that no such link existed. Asher and Brissett wrote the first research-based article on codependency in 1988. The researchers claimed to have proven a link between two common dimensions of codependency from the responses of women in their study namely notions of care-taking and pleasing others, and affliction by association with a chemically dependent person. Arguably, the behaviours of care-taking and pleasing others should be attributed to external causes, such as the patriarchal hierarchy that places women in the position of subordination. From this feminist perspective, their study does not prove conclusively that care-taking and pleasing others are symptoms of the codependency concept. The second common feature of codependency, namely the affliction by association with a chemically dependent person is simply a reflection of the sample used in the study. Contrary to how the researchers interpreted these results, this does not prove a link between codependency and partners of alcoholics. The women had to be married to an alcoholic for inclusion in this study, and meeting that criterion does not conclusively link the two. Undoubtedly, family systems are comprised of intertwined individuals through which one persons behaviour affects all other family members to a certain degree. The literature suggests, however, that countless factors influence the system. Simple predictions of codependency are insufficient in addressing all issues in families dealing with disorders, addictions, or any other source of obstacles to which the codependency definition is so quickly applied. By extension, the recovery process for codependent families presents a range of problems. Feminist Critique of Codependency as a Psychodynamic Concept The feminist perspective of codependency has become the most popular framework for highlighting the flaws in the codependency movement. Behaviours that are widely perceived as codependent are indicative of a subordinate role in a relationship (Herndon, 2001: 13). Women play the subordinate role most often in patriarchal cultures. Socially encouraged female conduct is then deemed codependent. Passivity, compliance, lack of initiative, and a fear of asserting oneself are all integral to the codependent disease model and characterise the individual playing the subordinate role in a relationship. The traditional, psy

Changes In The Concepts Of Childhood

Changes In The Concepts Of Childhood Discuss how childhood has changed since the 19th century. How do concepts from this period continue to influence current attitudes to childhood? What is childhood Childhood, the early years of a persons life, between birth to about 8 years, is also considered most beautiful, most meaningful and most important part of life for a human being. The importance of childhood can be understood by observing the fact that though many scientists have different theories to define the process of human development they all agree on the importance of childhood and experiences in that time having a profound affect on an individuals life. Many researches have been made on the process of human development and tough there are many proposed theories the actual difference between them is about how complex the relation really is between the stages and not what the stages really are. The differences are intrinsic not extrinsic. They all agree that childhood is a time when a person is moving from concrete to abstract thought. Man did learn sciences such as astrology, numerology, mathematics etc but the concept of schooling was deficient. People only knew as much as was required to trade and earn a living. A study conducted on child development concluded that in the year 1750 about 33 percent of infants and new born babies were left on doorsteps or social care homes by parents. (Archard, 1993)Poor children were also made to work in land mines and other industries by their parents to earn a living. Efforts to eradicate child labor have been made over centuries by the responsible government bodies in different countries and social welfare organizations in the world. But it seems that despite the changing perceptions towards childhood, statistical data proves otherwise. The commencement of specific child development theories and acknowledgment of these theories only date back to some 200 years ago, in the 17th and 18th century. An acclaimed name, in this regard is of Professor Malcolm W. Watson. (Heywood, 2001)He researched on Human Development and formed theories that are still studied and followed. Results of his findings emphasized on six major theories by different people in different times. These theories focus on different stages man goes through from infancy to adulthood. Details of how environment and other factors affect childhood are also underscored. The theories encompass effects and behavioral changes in man and what we opine about our own selves, be it scientists, researchers or a common man. Psychodynamic theory-Sigmund Freud. (James, 2004)This theory says that human psychology can be broken down in to three separate parts. These are namely the id, the ego and the superego. Id is the childish part of our personality and its driving force is food, warmth and appreciation and the sexual drive. This side of every being is then balanced by the other two parts i.e. ego and superego. The superego is contradictory to id. It is that part of human personality which enables us to control one self. Through this one acts in a socially acceptable manner. The ego is some where in the middle of these two extremes. Most of our troubles arise from balancing between the id and the superego. Oedipus complex is another very important entity of Freuds theory. This stage is when the child develops feelings for his opposite sex parents. Boys wish to take place of their father and be the head of the family and act as a husband to their mother but at the same time they respect their father and fear that if they cross limits they will have to bare the consequences. Psychosocial theory by Erik Erickson (Kehily, 2003)He coined the famous phrase Identity Crisis. His personality theory had 8 stages from infancy to old age. These were 1. Hope, 2. Will, 3. Purpose, 4. Competence, 5. Fidelity, 6. Love, 7. Caring, 8. Wisdom. Erik was the first to bring forth the notion that development is spread over our entire lives and not just childhood. Integrated Attachment theory- John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth: This theory originated in the early years of 1950s and was a joint effort by John Bowlby, specialist in child psychiatry and a psychologist, Mary Ainsworth. The concept is based on relationships and connections developed in the yearly years of our life. Also real life issues in a childs life pertaining to loss and separations with which he had emotional ties are emphasized upon in the theory. Social Learning theory by Albert Bandura: This theory was a modified version of the traditional learning theories. It says that learning is the same in infants, children, adults and even animals. Albert says that all respond to stimulus. Cognitive Mediation theory- Lev Vygotsky: Supporting many other major theorists, Vygotsky opines that learning comes first and paves way for development. According to his theory, a child learns through other individuals around him i.e. parents, teachers, siblings and other children. He says that developing thoughts and new skills is based on people in the environment we live in and our interaction with them. Cognitive developmental theory- Jean Piaget: Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist says that children learn by building their own cognitive worlds. He believed that individuals go through four stages of understanding. All of these are age related. Sensorimotor stage: This is from birth to two years of age. In this first stage, infants coordinate the senses of seeing and hearing with physical and motoric experiences to understand. Thus, the name sensorimotor. Preoperational stage: It goes on from two years of age to seven years. Children at this stage start relating the world and their surroundings with words and images. They go beyond the sensory experiences in this stage. Concrete Operational Stage: This third stage lasts from 7 years to eleven years. Children can perform operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. For instance, concrete operational thinkers cannot imagine the steps necessary to complete algebraic equation, which is too abstract for thinking at this stage of development. (Mayall, 1994) Formal Operational Stage: The final stage is from 11 to 15 years. Children move further from concrete thoughts to abstracts and logical thinking. As a part of abstractive thinking they create hypothetical ideal circumstances and then compare their own life with these standards, deducing a satisfactory conclusion. In a nutshell, childhood is the time when we are understanding simple operations in order to be able to understand and master complex tasks in future. We need to identify the environment around us and use language to make connections to objects and the world in general. If this basic understanding is faulty, the future would certainly hold a lot more surprises, and many of them would be unwelcome. Only when a child fully understands the world around is he really able to grasp abstract concepts and use logic to reach meaningful conclusions in future. Having now understood what childhood is all about, how a human mind is developing, in stages, to understand the world it is introduced to and how important this part of life is in your life and mine, let us now take a look into how childhood has been different for people in the past century and the present. Childhood in the 18th century Compared to Childhood in the 19th century To begin with, the treatment of children with utmost care, especially in their earliest years, is a fairly recent notion. Before the 18th century, child mortality rate was so high that people had a lot of children of whom only a few actually survived. Parents could not afford to get too emotionally attached to children until they crossed a threshold age where chances of survival became greater than chances of death. In France, during the 17th century, between 20%-50% of infants died in their first year. (5) (Wyness, 2000) Zelizer, in his book, Pricing The Priceless Child, tells us how in the middle ages, Spanish children when they died could be buried anywhere on the premises, rather like a cat or dog, often, their bodies were sewn together into sacks and put inside common graves.In early Arabian cultures, the birth of a female child was considered a burden, it was mourned upon and in cases the infant was buried alive. Religion played a vital role in controlling erratic human behaviors and in both the east and the west, the religious institution was the first to recognize the rights of children and honorable dealings with them. The following table describes how religion basd institutions have provided childhood care facilities in the African continent. (Linda, 1984) With time and with the slow but steady spread of education, the world started becoming a different place altogether, especially in respect of the rights of children, and that happened mostly during the 18th and 19th centuries. We have, as the human species, come to realize that childhood is not just a biological phase in life. It holds much more meaning; it gives birth to a social being that embodies the belief system of on an entire populace at a point in time. Parents attitudes toward child bearing and rearing have undergone drastic reconstruction in modern times. 19th Century Concepts: In the 19th century children did not have a significant importance. No formal education and learning took place inside homes. Mothers generally did not have the awareness to spend time with their children and nurture them. A father in every home has been the breadwinner since times immemorial but women in the 19th century also joined the earning league. Till the early 19th century children were used to earn a living and a study shows that more than fifty percent of factory workers were children under the age of eleven years in northern parts of the world. They were made to work hard and perform hazardous jobs such as cleaning up narrow chimneys and going down cramped tunnels owing to their small size. Most historians would agree that children in present day world are much better off than the children in past centuries. But they continue to debate the extent to which childhood has changed since the 19th century and how the adults approach to childhood and dealing with children has altered. As such, children in past centuries worked with their parents from a very small age. But it was the industrial revolution of the 19th century which actually caused the inception of child labour. Researchers in the field of human development take one of two stances when explaining early childhood. They hold either an essentialist view (which considers childhood a commonalty that is no different in any part of the world, more a biological state than anything deeper). The other view to childhood, the constructionist view pictures childhood as being different in different cultures and different times. A child in Japan would be fundamentally different than a child in Britain. The children of one count ry would also be much different at different times. We can just take a look at the children around us and see the difference between our childhood and theirs to grasp the importance of the constructionist view. Cross cultural differences in childhood and its perception by elders is linked to the societies sense of a childs autonomy. It was considered an a vital aspect of Western cultures (Holland, 1992)but was not so prominent in eastern ones. While western mothers emphasized on teaching their child personal values and their rights at , each part of their lives, Japanese and Pakistani mothers have always emphasized more on differential treatment of elders and good mannerism (Gittens, 1998)The difference, as we see it plainly today, is that Japanese children display greater sensitivity and self discipline while American children are more confident and expressive. However, it has long been a subject of argument between researchers that irrespective of the vast differences in child rearing strategies across many cultures the fundamental importance of parenthood comes out in the form of warmth and acceptance against rejection and neglect (Jenks, 1996)However whether eastern cultures have been m ore histile toward the child in the past or western cultures have been more so is a matter of debate. While western cultures have displayed a generally strict attitude toward the childrearing and the lack of acknowledgement to their a childs own autonomy, eastern cultures on the other hand believe that strictness, control and and even corporal punishment are but ways to shw a child how much a prent cares. While the Chienese may consider American parents less caring for their childrens development of important social virtues, the American parent may consider Chinese as totally autorotarian and irrational (Higgonet, 1998)However, another psychological argument presented by Scientists says that in such collectivistic cultural arrangements as the Chinese, Japanese or Indian, authoritarian and restrictive parenting practices are necessary for maintaining harmoniously stable society . Literature on childhood from different cultures across the world have shown two main stream belief systems, the concept of childhood as Dionysian and Apollonian (Jenks, 1996)The Dionysian belief, taking from the greek mythological figure Dionysus (Prince of wine, nature and revelry) assumes that every child is born with evil or corruption in its nature imbued in their conscience. The Apollonian child is considers, from nature, the very image of beauty, poetry, sunshine and light. This is the belief that is prevalent today in the 21st century but did not exist in earlier centuries. While 19th century children were treated rather like animals. The industrial revolutions laid the foundations for the market for low paid child labour. IN textile factories, they worked as many as twelve hours a day. As education crept into the masses the parliament began passing laws to curtail child labour, but the first effective rule, emforced with the help of factory inspectors, came about in 1833. Education was not considered a necessity for every child and the responsibility of the state as late as 1870 and even then the poorest members of society could not afford school fee which were abolished in 1891. Victorian children were used to beatings and in extreme circumstances, poor children were forced to wear a cap which said dunce meaning a stupid person. Children dressed like adults, were supposed to act like adults and were treated in both love and hate as adults. The extent of neglect towards children can be seen by the fact that the first public park for children was build as late as 1859 in the city of Manchester. To us then, the hundreds of complex laws that protect children from evils makes utmost sense. Sexual and physical abuse, pornography, beatings and even simple neglect are considered crimes against childhood. Special laws for the special treatment of children are now in place to ensure that children are treated with delicate care. It seems that parental affection is not much of an instinct but only a reflection of what parents consider to be their duties toward their off spring. (Higgonet, 1998) It is a fact that parents in our world today can exercise less power over their children than in the past because a part of child rearing is controlled by the state (Donzalot, 1980). However these regulations have been brought into action to curtail the misuse of parental authority over children. Good parents can still be good parents, in fact, outside interference in maters such as family etiquettes, a childs eating, dressing, sleeping and entertainment habits and the setting of acceptable beahvorial standards is considered a breach of the parents right. The state usually only intervenes when it fears that the child is being ill treated or when it believes that the child is not well brought up and would be a danger to those around him or her. John Hood Willams (1990) points out that childrens lives are controlled by their families in quite a array of ways. Their social spaces are strictly defined, their times are set by elders, their clothes and haircut is subject to the parents ima ge of decency or acceptability. Parents even provide rules to be followed when eating, walking, talking and even standing in a crowd. Children are the most vulnerable to corporal punishment or all other members in the human society (Kline, 1993) However, 19th century and present day childhood is vastly different. Todays world is quite different than in the past century. Science and technology have rocketed human understanding of life many times over. Though the industrial revolution laid the foundations of all the progress we have seen in the past two hundred years, the greatest speed in the development of sciences and discovery has been hosted by the past 60 -70 years. Increasingly, the world has accepted that it is a global arena and not one divided by geographical boundaries. Cross cultural knowledge exchange has lead to a different populace which is ready to take on aspects of other societies almost readily. The media and internet have, without a trace of doubt, the greatest importance in the life of the modern child. Children are not only aware of fashion, trends and coursework, they are also aware of their rights and that 911 can save them from a parents physical or emotional abuse. At the same time that the present ce ntury is a blessing on children, it should also be brought into account that the 20th and 21st centuries have made childhood much more prone to corruption than previous centuries. To begin with, our environment is in a state of alarm, pollution and the green house effect have starting melting glaciers. Sea levels continue to rise and natural calamities have begun to affect humans in ever increasing ways. While countries emphasize on becoming wealthier and more powerful, they continue to expand their industrial and technological horizons but do not place due importance to the physical and mental development of a child. Physical activity (especially sport) for children has become an endangered species while computers and mobile phones have taken their place as a childs entertainment activity. Life has become fast and so much so that we enjoy and prefer fast food even if it delivers extremely low nutrition value and high cholesterol levels. Drug and sex abuse of children seems to be ri sing steadily, despite the existing laws to regulate such unacceptable actions. Terrorism, radical thought and the spirit of revolution among youth have made childhood an age where there should actually be more protection and concern from parents and the state. A childs cognitive and socioemotional development is therefore at the forefront of modern worlds strategies to rear better children. Cross cultural psychological studies have discovered that there are many ways in which cultural factors help in developing a sound child who would later develop into a socially acceptable person. The organization of physical and social setup in a surrounding, dictated by culture has a profound affect on the childs mannerism and activities. Prevalent social values, customs and norms provide a medium to evaluate his own acceptability or conformity in a society. Parental beliefs and practices, which have been molded by culture play a mediating role in a childs understanding of the world in which he/she lives. Contemporary societies use the schooling system, also built around their own cultural value, to imbed certain levels of acceptability criteria in the minds of children. (Gittens, 1998) For the broad minded modern child, many pieces of information, the instance of sexual information, is quite important in order to be able to perform in an agreeable way. It has already been shown by research that romantic ideals pave way for women coming to terms with their sexual drives and experiences .(Woodhead, 2003)At the same time boys, who hardly share romantic ideals with their parents tend to take on their masculine audacity to deal with love and sexual involvement .This finally leads to a pattern of married life (seen among the general populace) where women hardly get to the emotional closeness they expect to receive from their husbands .

Science :: essays research papers

LAW, SOCIAL SCIENCE, LITERATURE, LAW SCHOOL, AND PERSONAL STATEMENTS Law School Admissions: Why Bother? Stately and plump, Harvard Law School admits just 850 to yield a class of 550; for Yale, fewer than 400 admitted brings a svelte class of 170. Ever battling its late entry and the suspectness of a West Coast address -- â€Å"newness† coupled with the perception that sunshine vitiates seriousness -- Stanford Law School admitted 435 to make a class of 180 for the class of 1998. For the most part, students admitted to Stanford either go to Stanford, go to Harvard, go to Yale, or don’t go to law school. Five-hundred fifty plus 150 plus 180 equals 880. Eight-hundred eighty is just 30 more than 850, which implies that Harvard, which was first, still is first when it comes to circumscribing the legal elite. In other words, if Harvard effectively locates the 850 students who will be divided among itself, Stanford, and Yale, why bother worrying about what Stanford does, who it admits? As this reasoning goes, Harvard has taken care of things. Harvard defines the 850 students, implying that the admissions procedures of the latter two are superfluous -- like so much, parasitic on Harvard. Not so. First, it matters, year to year, for as long as Stanford’s and Yale’s classes are small and Harvard’s is big, who Stanford and Yale reject. Stanford rejects contribute importantly to the School’s reputation. Stanford admits 400 compared to Harvard’s 800. Assuming considerable overlap in application patterns, many of Harvard’s last 400 admitees were likely rejected by Stanford. The perception, widely held, that attendance at Harvard means one could have gone anywhere is false; rejection by Stanford serves as a reminder of the proposition’s falseness. The presence of Stanford rejects at Harvard is another way of saying Stanford is good because, as everyone knows, Harvard is good. More broadly, it is possible to play renegade in this game as Stanford apparently did several years ago by admitting â€Å"older† students and reaching outside the 850. Thus it does, or can, matter who Stanford admits in the sense of Stanford making an original contribution to the 850 who will compose the first year classes at Harvard, Yale, and Stanford. What is being rewarded or predicted when an applicant is considered -- particularly something that differs from the competing schools -- can materially alter, for good or for bad, the profession by deliberately attempting to send a different sort of person into the law.

Raising kids :: essays research papers

The object of this study is to carry out a small scale investigation, based on the Hess et al (1980) study which was development expectations of children on of mothers in different countries. Factors that I shall be taking into consideration whilst carrying out the interviews include the participants’ race, cultural background and their socio-economic status. I will also address the significance of aspects such as child having siblings, being raised by a single parent or a first time parent(s). All the areas covered in this study may to some extent affect how a child is raised and also lend some explanation to the different views the parent has acquired about the relationship with their child A child may often learn from others around them, by copying or engaging themselves in similar behavioural patterns. Parents often tend to set boundaries of what is acceptable to them. Some of their views may be typical to others; others may be formed by a certain cultural demand. A child may discover the ability to carry out certain tasks at a particular age yet the parent may feel that their child should be doing that task before or after a certain age; indeed these aspects of parenting can cause great anxieties. Taking a look back at Hess et al’s study it can be seen by the statement cards that many parents often have different opinions or expectations on when their child should be able to do something, possibly in comparison to the behaviour of other parents with their children, or how they themselves have been raised. Parental influence on children is very important in the early stages of child development and as the children grow they will start to deal with things in the ir own way, compiling what they have been taught by parents with their own experiences and understanding of their background and social environment. In addition children’s own observations from their environment as well as their engagement with older and closer age children can often contribute to their learning from others for example in feeding and dressing themselves and other such activities, in doing so they are getting to grasps with different emotions and ultimately the art of human interaction. Children have the ability to resolve issues by learning to balance initiative against the demand of others. Development involves change and this goes for any of the stages in child development, but more crucial are the issues that affect the rate of a child’s development.

Introduction to 21st Fashion

Student name: Peiji Zhou Student number: 10344206 Content page: Lookbook and range building——————-P 3 Shop report———————————–P 7 Luxury brand———————————P 9 Ethical Fashion——————————–P 11 Footwear————————————-P 13 NEXT—————————————-P 16 Marks & Spencer——————————P 18 Jeffery West———————————- P 21 Tannery visit—————————— -P 23 References————————————P 25 Lookbook and range building:A lookbook is a collection of photographs to show a style, a model or a clothing line. It usually exists in fashion website and fashion bloggers. lookbook is like a fashion portfolio or fashion diaries, Fashion bloggers update their fashion look constantly online. It can be a record for blogger’s own fashion look and also a record for other people’s looks such as a celebrity, politician or socialite, it can be described as ‘artist portfolio’. Nowadays, lookbook is common for stores and clothing designers to use it to show off products. They include photos of multiple types of clothes, shoes and other accessories from a season or line.Examples of lookbook: LOOKBOOK. nu known as ‘LB’— the largest online community which established in 2008 dedicated to showcasing member-uploaded â€Å"street sty le† photography. Members post photos on LOOKBOOK. nu to document their evolving style or a collective gallery from other ‘lookbolggers’. Non-members can also draw their daily fashion style on LOOKBOOK. nu. The most popular looks will be displayed on the ‘Hot’ page. â€Å"LOOKBOOK. nu was created to bring together creative, interesting, and openminded fashion enthusiasts, and to democratically recognize the talents of real people around the world. (lookbook. nu 2011). In a sense, LOOKBOOK. nu is the world's first, truly editorless fashion magazine. Some lookbooks from fashion brand website: (LOVE. COM) (H;M. COM) Range building is usually mentioned with clothing line planning. They are important commercial functions in the fashion industry. The functions include making a good range, taking into account customers, competitors, price points, fabrics, core items and seasonal specials. They are also a key function of fashion merchandiser who may consult w ith designers and buyers depending on the business operating structure of a company.The first step of range building is to determine what clothes to manufacture. Ascertain if there is a market for your proposed product, and then be able to define your specialty, both in line and price category. The market for clothes is as varied as the demographic segmentation of the population, it focuses on gender (girls, boys, woman, men. ) and age (baby clothes, granny clothes). Also, consider creating clothes for infants, large women and pregnant woman. Further, design clothes for a specific niche market such as for sports enthusiasts and athletes. (Golfing apparel, tennis outfits or swimwear).Shop report: Shop report is one kind of report that introduces, describe and present stores and shopping opportunities in specific area. Firstly, a shop report should include a brief description of the area of choice and information about the local demographic. Provide detailed address, contact informati on and website, give direction that reader can find the shop. Secondly, it should explain what products the shop is selling. Identify whether it is handbags, leather goods or shoes. For example, write a detailed description of the goods in terms of colour, design, themes.Further, outlining the prices of products for the shop is necessary, but it is not a list of every items. Give an approximation like shoes in this shop vary between $99~$500. These three steps are the base of shop report. A detailed shop report also provides a comparison of shops analyzed. Compare their selection of brands, designers, quality of garments, styles, prices and overall customer base. For example, while one shop may have a larger selection of clothing compared to other shops, the quality may be better in the stores with smaller selections.If possible, make a table of contents at the beginning of the report let reader find information quickly. This is a shop report of Kaight which is a fashion boutique in New York. It gives detailed information about the designers and introduction of the products. Another website which is GLLTN. COM has a few detailed shop reports about London stores. Luxury brand: Luxury can be described as the great comfort and extravagant living or ‘an inessential’, desirable item that is expensive or difficult to obtain. It is a specific tier of offer in almost any product or service category.Luxury products are always being classical, special, fashionable, value. Being luxury products are usually due to their design, quality, branding exclusivity, durability or performance. Luxury goods plays a role of status symbols as it tend to signify the power of purchase of people who can obtain them. In other words, luxury products are displaying wealth or income of their owners. These kinds of goods are objects of conspicuous consumption include handbags, shoes, cosmetics, jewelry, clothing, vehicle, perfume, watch, holiday, large residences.The recent glob al sales of luxury goods: leather goods (33%), watch;jewlry (30%), perfume;other (27%), apparel (10%). Luxury brand is a heritage global brand that is focused on exclusive fashion and luxury goods which is expensive and coveted by consumers. It is another market characteristic of luxury goods which is high profit margins as well as prices, and very tightly controlled brands. For example, LVMH (Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessy) is the largest luxury good producer in the world with over 50 brands. In 2003, it made a profit of â‚ ¬2 billion on the sales of â‚ ¬12 billion.A few of luxury brands are classified as designer brand which is an established or rising major designer whose signature personality and associated with fashion. Such as Paul Smith, Vivienne Westwood, Prada, Giorgio Armani, Versace. There are some star designers like John Galliano who was head designer of French haute couture houses Givenchy in 1996 and Christian Dior now, and also his own self-titled fashion house. K arl Lagerfeld is a German fashion designer, artist and photographer. He is most notably as head designer and creative director for Chanel.John Paul Gaultier is a French haute couture fashion designer and the creative director of Hermes. Marc Jacobs who is an American fashion designer has been the creative director of the French design house Louis Vuitton since 1997. He won a number of awards and has his own brand called Marc Jacobs as well. Top 10 luxury markets are Japan, North American, London, France, China, Italy, Taiwan, German, Spain, Switzerland, and Brazil. Ethical Fashion: Ethical in business is usually defined as doing no harm, take an active role in poverty reduction, sustainable livelihood creation and counteracting environmental concerns.Ethical Fashion is an umbrella term to describe ethical fashion design, production, retail, and purchasing. It covers a range of issues such as working conditions, exploitation, fair trade, sustainable production, the environment, and a nimal welfare. According to EFF. COM (2010), ethical fashion is an approach to the design, sourcing and manufacture of clothing which maximizes benefits to people while minimizing impact on the environment. The triple bottom lines of sustainability are social, environmental and commercial. A business or initiative is not ethical and sustainable unless the triple bottom line is integrated.Social: â€Å"Increasing the capacity and wellbeing of the people and communities behind fashion. Any fashion business depends on the people behind it. In a broader context, poverty and exploitation of the human workforce behind fashion affects the stability of the industry itself. † (EFF 2010) Environmental: play some action to reducing the environmental impact of all business operations. Such as awareness raising , investment in and support of environmental initiatives. Commercial: without a strong financial business structure, none of the above can be achieved and good intentions can backf ire.Furthermore, a sustainable approach includes quality products or services that meet customers’ needs and are fairly marketed. The Ethical Fashion Forum has created a set of 10 criteria for ethical fashion: 1. Countering fast, cheap fashion and damaging patterns of fashion consumption 2. Defending fair wages, working conditions and workers’ rights 3. Supporting sustainable livelihoods 4. Addressing toxic pesticide and chemical use 5. Using and /or developing eco- friendly fabrics and components 6. Minimizing water use. 7. Recycling and addressing energy efficiency and waste 8. Developing or promoting sustainability standards for fashion 9.Resources, training and/ or awareness raising initiatives 10. Animal rights Case about ethical fashion: In Germany, a boom in sustainable fashion is expected these years. Although the market is still small, it is growing steadily. More than 200 fashion labels and 30concept stores are now dedicated to sustainability. Ethical fashion events are attracting an increasing number of visitors to Germany. Also, in October 2011, Universities in Germany opened first master degree course called â€Å"Sustainability in fashion†. Footwear: Footwear is included in garments, it is apparel worn on the feet. Footwear is a key element of fashion and adornment.It has been designed to meet people’s real and perceived needs-protection, support, comfort, sturdiness, and stylishness. According to Drummond (2000), From over 15,000 years ago, there were some draws which made by Spanish cave show humans with animals skin or furs wrapped around their feet. So, shoes in some form or another have been existed for a long time. From the sandal to modern athletic shoes, the evolution of footwear is marvels of engineering. Even today, footwear industries continue to developing and find new materials to cover our feet. Materials of footwear: Leather PlasticRubber Textiles Wood Jute, Metal The Anatomy of a Shoe (footwearhistory. com): Breast: the front of the heel under the arch. Cap: the toecap. Counter: overlaid piece at the back of the upper. Feather: the part of the last and the shoe where the upper edge meets the sole. Insole: a piece of leather or other material between the sole and the foot. Puff: a light reinforcing inside the upper which gives the toe its shape and support. Quarter: the part of the back of the upper, which covers the heel. Seat: the concave part of the heel that fits into the shoe and into which the heel of the foot sits.Shank: a piece of metal inserted between the sole and the insole lying against the arch of the foot. Sole: the piece of leather or other material that comes in contact with the ground. Stiffener: the inside stiffening of the upper, covering the heel and giving the back of the shoe support. Throat: the front of the vamp. Top Piece: the part of the heel that comes in contact with the ground. Topline: the top edge of the upper. Upper: the piece of the shoe that covers the foot. Vamp: the part of the upper that covers the front of the foot as far as the back as the joint of the big toe.Waist: the part of the last and the shoe that corresponds to the arch and instep of the foot. Famous brands of footwear: NEXT: The NEXT was founded in 1982 by J Hepworth. Their first store was selling women fashion garments which include clothes, shoes and accessories. Nowadays, NEXT is the UK leading brand and owns more than 500 stores in the UK and 200 stores in oversea countries. Recent years, NEXT opened a few larger format fashion and home stores across the UK. The first combined fashion, home and garden store has been opened at Shoreham-by-sea in August 2011. It also means the product range of NEXT is wider than before.Its product range includes apparel of woman, men and children, homeware, electrical, grader accessories now. NEXT launched products for men in 1984, after 4 months there are 52 menswear stores. The home interiors was established in 1985 and chi ldrenswear was added in 1987. Thus NEXT became a full-line lifestyle brand in a short time. The NEXT directory which is a new standard home shopping was launched in 1988. It is a seasonal catalogues of their products with fantastic photography. In 1999, NEXT became pioneer of online shopping as it created online version at www. Next. co. uk.Since 2011, NEXT’s standard of delivery has became next day on most home shopping orders, about 80% customers is trading online. In 2001, NEXT flowers which is selling plants, flowers, gift cards, wine;champagne. In 2008, NEXT acquires the younger women’s fashion brand which is Lipsy. Recently, NEXT has been appointed as official clothing and homewear supplier to the London 2012 Olympic Games. NEXT will supplies uniforms for 4,500 technical officials and suits for reception staff and also home textiles for the athlete’s village. John Barton has become the chairman of the board of NEXT Plc since 2006.He became a member of the board in 2002 and was appointed deputy chairman in 2004. Other board members are Lord Wolfson of Aspley Guise (Chief Executive), Christos Angelides (Group Product Director), David Keens (Group Finance Director), Andrew Varley (Group Property Director). Independent non-executive directors are Jonathan Dawson, Steve Barber, Christine Cross, Francis Salway. NEXT still continues to improve their customer service. In addition, NEXT has preparing has operations in Hong Kong, Sri Lanka and India and the UK engaged in the design, sourcing, buying, merchandising and quality control of NEXT products.Marks ; Spencer: Marks ; Spencer is also known as M;S which is a British leading retailer. M;S started from a market stall in 1884 by Michael Marks and Thomas Spencer in Leeds. Now, its retailer headquartered in the city of Westminster, London. M;S owns over 700 stores in the UK and over 300 stores across more than 40 countries, over 78,000 people employed by M;S in the UK and abroad. M;S offer hi gh quality fashion clothing and home products, as well as luxury food products. When Michael Marks came to England from Slonim, he opened his first penny bazaar in Leeds.Michael wanted to look for a partner to help his growing business. He reminded of Isaac Jowitt Dewhirst who lent money to Michael towards his start up costs. Isaac rejected Michael’s request, but he recommended his cashier who was Tom Spencer. After Tom’s agreement, Marks ; Spencer was born on 28 September. In the next few years, Michael Marks and Tom Spencer opened market stalls in many locations around the North West of England and moved the original Leeds penny bazaar to Manchester. In 1901, Marks ; Spencer built a warehouse at Derby Street, Manchester.It is the first property and company’s first registered address and it was also ready for having 145 stores by 1915. In 1920s, underwear first appeared in Marks ; Spencer, bra has become M;S most iconic product. Flagship store was opened at Lon don, Records and electrical household goods were started selling in 1930s. Further, a food department was introduced selling produce and canned foods in 1931. Cafe bar was introduced in 1935. In 1940s, M;S created utility clothing, which could be brightly pattered but was very simple in design.The food technology department was established to collaborate with supplier and by 1942 it had created 82 Cafe bars in store. In 1950s, â€Å"We were not complaining when glamour came bouncing back. It was a time for looking forward†. (M;S) Fashion finally had the chance to rebel against the harsh conditions of the war years. A new style of dress was created base on the ‘Corolle’ collection by Christian Dior. It also improved the fit of clothing, such as nylon stockings. In 1956, M;S became the first retailer to introduce No Smoking rules in their stores.During 1960s, M;S created a number of modern new items. Tights were introduced to M;S for the first time in 1962. New pro ducts made from the man-made fabric terylene which is a type of polyester, it was very popular because it was so practical and hardwearing. In order to sell fresh products to customers, M;S invented the â€Å"cold-chain† process, to keep meat chilled and fresh. Therefore, M;S was the first major British retailer to offer fresh, chilled chicken. .In the early 1970s, frozen food became more and more popular.M;S developed our nation cuisine because it was the first major retailer selling Indian and Chinese meals. On the other hand, â€Å"From the mid-1970s suppliers slowly became more involved in design. †(M;S), the products were designed by Brian Godbold, and it leaded the fashion trends. First range of furniture was introduced in 1986. M;S launched an online shopping service in 1999. The limited collection for woman was launched in 2003. M;S announced the opening of the world's largest M&S shop at Dubai Festival City in 2007. M&S opened its first mainland China shop in Shanghai in 2008.More than 125 years, Marks & Spencer never change their five key principles Quality, Value, Service, Innovation and Trust. As well as, the five key principles is reflected by â€Å"plan A† that target climate change, waste, sustainable raw materials, fair partnerships and health. Jeffery West: Jeffery West is a British shoes brand which created by Mark Jeffery and Guy West. Jeffery West began in 1983 when Mark Jeffery and Guy West decided to selling second-hand shoes which were reject products and samples from the shoe factory of Mark’s father. In 1987, the first Jeffery West shoe was designed.They were designing and selling their own shoes at markets in Northamptonshire and London, although they were just 16 years old. Jeffery West has earned a loyal following by unique, innovative designs and superior quality. Jeffery West produces men’s shoes and men’s accessories are suitable for the modern gentleman. â€Å"Jeffery West shoes and Jef fery West boots merge both classic rich designs with modern sophistication and elegance† (Mr-shoes. co. uk 2010) â€Å"Jeffery West uses laborious techniques such as hand burnished uppers and Goodyear welted soles, to create edgy, luxurious shoes for the true modern dandy. (asos. co. uk. 2012) The company’s aim is to produce passionate designs consistently and high attention to detail and commitment to originality that make sure each shoe is special. While many footwear manufactures are cutting corners with mass production and produce the same trite designs, Jeffery West remains committed to hand-making, artful adornment and exclusive style. Jeffery West in Northampton. Tannery visit: Tannery is the term for place where to tanning. Tanning is the process of treating skins of animals and produce durable leather. Traditionally, Tanning used an acidic chemical compound called tannin.Coloring may occur during tanning. In addition, â€Å"A tannery may be associated with a grindery, originally a whetstone facility for sharpening knives and other sharp tools, but later could carry shoemakers' tools and materials for sale. † (Possehl, Gregory L. 1996) Before tanning, the skins should be â€Å"defresh† that include unhaired, degreased, desalted and soaked in water about 6 hours to 48 hours. Tanning can be performed with either vegetable or mineral methods. Except drying, the steps of preparation are often more complex than the process of tanning and production of leather.Curing is the most first step of tanning. Preparing skins begins by curing them with salt, curing removes superfluous water from hides in a different osmotic pressure and usually done by preserving the hides at an extreme low temperature. Beamhouse operations are known as the steps in the production of leather between curing and tanning, which include soaking, liming, unhairing and scudding, deliming, bating, drenching, and picking. Vegetable tanning is a traditional method that uses tannin (an acidic chemical compound). Tannin is collected from bark and leaves of many plants. Tannins bind to the collagen proteins in the hide and coat them causing them to become less water-soluble, and more resistant to bacterial attack. †(Fao. org 2005) Vegetable tanning causes the hide become more flexible so that vegetable tanned hide is used for luggage and furniture. The process of vegetable tanning takes a long time and it can take up to 60 days. Today, the process has been speeded up with chrome tanning (mineral tanning). Chrome tanning usually only taking up to 1 day and produces stretchable leather which is great for use in handbags and clothes. But chrome tanning is very bad for the environment.References: Lookbook. com. 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History of footwear. Available: http://www. footwearhistory. com/index. shtml. Last accessed 5th May 2012. ShoeGuide. Org . (2006). a footwear encyclopedia. Available: http://www. shoeguide. rg/. Last accessed 5th May 2012 Nextpl c. co. uk. (2012). Business overview. Available: http://www. nextplc. co. uk/about-next/business-overview. aspx. Last accessed 5th May 2012 Marksandspencer. com. (2012). M&S historytimeline. Available: http://www. marksintime. marksandspencer. com/ms-history/timeline/. Last accessed 5th May 2012. Marksandspencer. com. (2012). Company overview. Available: http://corporate. marksandspencer. com/aboutus/company_overview. Last accessed 5th May 2012. Adams G. (2012). About Jeffery West. Available: http://www. jeffery-west. co. uk/jefferywest/about. sp. Last accessed 5th May 2012 freewebs. com. (2006). Tannery . Available: http://www. freewebs. com/whitwellhall/tanneryhistory. htm. Last accessed 5th May 2012 fao. org. (2010). TANNERIES. Available: http://www. fao. org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6114E/x6114e05. htm#TopOfPage. Last accessed 5th May 2012 squidoo. com. (2011). Chrome VS Vegetable Tanned Leather . Available: http://www. squidoo. com/chrome-versus-vegetable-tanned-leather. Last accessed 5t h May 2012 Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press Images from: